Aichhorn T. (Jahr). The Emergency Committee on Relief and Immigration
In seiner Eröffnungsansprache anlässlich des XV. Internationalen Psychoanalytischen Kongresses, der vom 1. bis zum 5. August 1938 in Paris stattfand, sagte Ernest Jones: „Die Katastrophe in Österreich war — wenigstens für einige unter uns — nicht so unerwartet wie die erste in Deutschland, so daß wir die Möglichkeit hatten, voraussichtig einiges zu unternehmen. Mit Rücksicht auf meine verantwortungsvolle Funktion begab ich mich sofort nach Wien und verhandelte mit den dortigen Vorstandsmitgliedern über die Maßnahmen, die am besten zu ergreifen waren. Es wurde sofort ein Aufruf zur Schaffung eines internationalen Fonds erlassen und ich konnte feststellen, daß unsere amerikanischen Kollegen mit bewundernswerter Raschheit ähnliche Schritte bereits unternommen hatten. Der englische Innenminister Sir Samuel Hoare, an den ich herantrat, bot ohne Zögern und getreu den besten Traditionen seines Landes Professor Freud und seiner Familie eine dauernde Zuflucht an und gab das Versprechen, das seither auch in Tat umgesetzt wurde, einer Anzahl von Freuds Wiener Mitarbeitern bei ihrer Niederlassung in England seine teilnehmende Hilfe zu leihen. In den Vereinigten Staaten wurde ein besonderes Refugee-Komitee unter der Leitung von Dr. Kubie[1] geschaffen. Dieses Komitee beschränkte sich nicht darauf, durch finanzielle Hilfe und andere Maßnahmen die Einreise nach Amerika zu erleichtern, sondern verfaßte mit echt amerikanischem Sinn fürs Praktische ein Memorandum, das in bündiger Weise die Arbeits- und Lebensbedingungen schilderte, denen unsere Einwanderer bei ihrer Ankunft gegenüberstehen würden.“ (IZ, Bd. XXIV, S. 361f).
Das von Kubie unterzeichnete „Bulletin of Information to Be Supplied Only to Psychoanalysts Who Desire to Emigrate to the U.S.A” lautet folgendermaßen:
„1. The practice of psychoanalysis in the treatment of adults has been defined legally as the practice of medicine wherever this question has been raised in any law court in this country. Under the Constitution of the United States, however, many legal decisions apply only to the States in which the decision has been given. Although the question has not as yet been subjected to legal testing throughout the country, there can be little doubt that the same decision will ultimately be reached in every State. Therefore any psychoanalyst who wishes to settle in this country must realize that in practicing psychoanalysis he will be practicing medicine and he will have to subject himself to the conditions under which medicine can legally be practiced in the community in which he lives. These conditions are described below. The situation with regard to the practice of child-analysis is not yet clear. There is some possibility that the analysis of children will not be looked upon exclusively as the practice of medicine—but that it may be looked upon also as part of the general field of pedagogy. Therefore child analysis may be a field in which properly trained laymen can function without violation of the law. Discreet efforts are being made to clarify this situation at present; but nothing final can be said about it as yet. It must be clearly understood, however, that the practice of psychoanalysis on adults without a medical license and a medical degree is a violation of the law for which severe penalties have sometimes been imposed.
2. It is necessary therefore to take legal steps to secure a license for the practice of medicine before practicing psychoanalysis. Licenses to practice medicine are issued by the State of the United States in which one resides. At present, however, there are twenty-one individual States in the United States in which it is either legally, or for practical reasons, impossible for a foreigner to secure a license to practice medicine. These States are: Arkansas, Delaware, the District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Nebraska, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Tennessee, Utah, and Vermont. In some of these States this is because one must become a citizen before one can take the examinations, which would take six years. In others, it is because one must obtain a degree from an American medical school before one can take the examination. In others, it is because one must take one year's internship in an approved hospital before taking the examination. In four States of those listed (namely, Illinois, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Vermont), the only obstacle to taking the examination is the requirement that the applicant must spend one year in a hospital. Where such a position is obtainable, this of course is not an insurmountable barrier; and although it delays the securing of a license by one year, these four States can be added to the list of available States as possible future homes. It may also be borne in mind for future use that it is sometimes possible to secure a license in a State where one of those restrictions exist, —and that after practicing in that State for some time (usually a few years are required), it may be possible to have one's license transferred by special arrangement to a nearby State where the original restrictions are more difficult. Obviously, however, this offers no immediate solution to our problem. Therefore, the States in which foreigners may take examinations immediately are: Alaska, Alabama, Arkansas, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Idaho, Indiana, Iowa, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Missouri, Montana, New Hampshire, New York, North Carolina, North Dakota, Ohio, Oklahoma, Oregon, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Texas, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming. And in addition, after a one-year internship, Illinois, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Vermont become available.
3. In every State in which foreigners are permitted at all to take the examinations for a medical license, it is now necessary for the applicant (no matter how eminent he has been, and no matter how many years he has been practicing in his own country) to pass the written examination which is required of graduates of American medical schools. This examination must be taken in English. All of these legal facts mean that in order to become established in the practice of psychoanalysis a newcomer may have to be dependent in no small part upon the support which others are able to provide, for some time.
4. Selection of a home in this country: It is important to bear in mind that there are a few large communities in which active centers for the training of psychoanalysts now exist, and in which large bodies of students are already being trained; so that in some of these the field has already become overcrowded. Therefore the newcomers must be prepared to go to other communities where there is a growing demand for well-trained psychoanalysts, but where neither the medical profession nor the lay-public is well informed as yet as to what the practice of psychoanalysis means. Here the newcomer will of necessity have to be prepared to face a certain amount of isolation and loneliness. This is all the more true because psychoanalytic practice, like all other medical practice, is affected seriously at present by the severe economic depression which is felt everywhere.
5. In these difficulties our colleagues from abroad can expect that this Committee will assist them to the best of its ability with advice and with financial support where possible. On the other hand, it is expected that the people to whom help is extended will be ready to pledge themselves to cooperate with us in the following ways:
(a) First that they will be ready to go to communities in which openings are prepared for them, and to look upon their relationship to these communities as real obligations. It is important that they should be prepared to remain there for some years, even though the situation may in some ways be difficult. (Unless special conditions arise which the Committee agrees would make an immediate change wise and necessary.) This point is stressed because in the past we have had many experiences in which immigrants to this country have made quick and sudden changes in their plans, have sometimes abandoned analyses already begun, and have failed to live up to promises made to physicians and to the community where they have settled. Where this happens, it leaves the community deeply disturbed, and it makes it almost impossible to place any other analyst in that community for a long time to come.
(b) Furthermore, it is expected that all immigrants will present their credentials to some one of the constituent societies of the American Psychoanalytic Association, applying for membership in that Society, and abiding by all of the regulations of that Society.
(c) It is particularly expected that no immigrant, no matter what status he has had in Europe as a training analyst, will undertake to train psychoanalysts independently of one of our established training institutes. In America all training in psychoanalysis is recognized as a function exclusively of those training institutes, which are recognized by the American Psychoanalytic Association. We are particularly insistent that this regulation be adhered to by all of our colleagues as they come to settle in this country.
(d) The teaching of psychoanalysis is not the practice of psychoanalysis; and just as laymen may teach in medical schools, so laymen may teach in psychoanalytic institutes provided they are adequately prepared. For those incoming analysts, therefore, who have had sufficient training and experience to be entitled to the rank of Instructor in a recognized training institute, it may be possible to arrange for them to do some preparatory (didactic) analyses even before they have a license to practice. Where this is possible, it will lessen the economic struggle considerably. Even where such analysts are living in a city at some distance from the Institute, it may be possible for them to arrange to function as a part of the teaching staff of that Institute, training carefully chosen students under the auspices and under the regulations of the Institute with which they are affiliated.
6. We hope to be able to grant to well-trained laymen the status of “Honorary Guests” in our Societies. Laymen, however, who expect support from our Committee must agree not to practice psychoanalysis, but to do other work to which we will try to assist them. As explained above, however, it is probable that in the case of child-analysts, work can be done in close contact with and under the supervision of physicians, or under the aegis of some educational institutions. Lay child-analysts must not, however, train laymen for child-analysis without the express permission of the societies of which they are guests.
7. The securing of visas and affidavits: In order to secure permission to come to this country to live permanently, it is necessary for a foreigner to secure a visa at the nearest consular office. Under the existing law, the Consul is not permitted to give this visa unless the prospective immigrant can give evidence that he has money enough to live for a sufficient length of time to get established independently in this country. If he has not money, or if the country which he is leaving will not permit him to bring money with him, he must have an affidavit issued by someone in this country. This affidavit is a promise to support the incoming individual, and not allow him to ever become a public charge. Naturally such affidavits can be given only by people of means. The government requires that evidence be given of the income of the guarantors, and in certain cases requires that money or securities be placed on deposit. The specific requirements vary with the number of dependents in the family of the foreigner who is coming over, with the likelihood of his getting work in his particular profession, etc. Naturally friends and relatives of incoming foreigners are more ready to give such affidavits than are strangers. Nevertheless, it is sometimes possible to secure such affidavits from generous-minded strangers. In order to do so, however, we need the fullest possible information on the individual who wants to come to this country. For this reason, in addition to its usefulness in helping to secure positions for our colleagues from abroad, we are enclosing a questionnaire which we would like to have filled out in full by every individual who wants to come to America.”
Dem angeschlossen ist ein Fragebogen:
„Curriculum Vitae
1. Name, address, age.
2. Place of birth—citizenship—how and when acquired.
3. If married, name, address, age, place of birth and citizenship of husband or wife.
4. If married, the occupation of the wife or husband.
5. Number of dependents—names, ages, married or single.
6. Degree of command of English and other language.
7. General education: (Complete record of school, university, and scientific training where studies were carried out, dates, under what particular outstanding teachers any special training was received, all degrees received—where and when).
8. Medical training: Medical school record, record of all types of hospital experience both general and psychiatric, out-patient clinic experience, etc. with dates and places.
9. Academic ranks held—teaching positions, lectureships, etc.
10. Psychoanalytic training: Preparatory analysis, where and when and by whom, duration; in what Psychoanalytic Institute studies were pursued (with details); under whom supervised work was conducted, etc.
11. If applicant has been a teacher in any psychoanalytic institute,—what teaching has been conducted, what courses given, what supervisory work has been carried on, etc.
12. List of most important scientific publications or publications in any academic or intellectual field.
13. Full data on all types of special experience or training in non-analytic fields, which might lead to opportunities for teaching or other work. With regard to this, it is important to give as full details as possible (zit. nach Thompson 2012, S. 32ff, Appendix A).
Im Protokoll des Treffens der „American Psychoanalytic Association”, das am 2. und 3. Juni 1938 in Chicago stattfand, heißt es über das Zustandekommen und den Arbeitsauftrag an das „Emergency Committee on Relief and Immigration”: „In January, 1938, Drs. Rado, French, Hill, Daniels, Kaufman and Kubie met in New York as a special Committee of the American Psychoanalytic Association to study the relationship of the Association to the International Psychoanalytic Association. At that meeting it was decided that a Standing Committee of the American Psychoanalytic Association was needed, to deal with all problems arising in connection with the migration of analysts from Europe to this country. The specific problems envisaged were: the relationship of such analysts to the International, their relationship to our constituent societies, their right to teach and by whom such right should be conferred, the situation of lay-analysts, etc. The primary functions of such a Committee were to be to restrict and control immigration, to direct it into communities not already over-crowded, and to keep the teaching of analysis centered in the hands of our recognized teaching Institutes. Less than two months later, however, on March 13th, the same Committee reassembled hastily to consider the emergency created by the annexation of Austria by Germany. At this meeting, by prearrangement with all of the constituent societies, the original Committee was enlarged to include several additional representatives from each society: from Boston, Drs. Deutsch, Murray and Kaufman; from Chicago, Drs. Alexander and French; from New York, Drs. Lewin, Rado, Meyer, Daniels and Kubie; from Washington-Baltimore, Dr. Hill. At this meeting, the Committee originally contemplated as an instrument for the control of immigration was reorganized into an Emergency Committee for Relief and Immigration. A resolution to this effect was subsequently passed by all of the constituent societies; and is appended to this report. The functions of this Emergency Committee were complex, because on the one hand it retained its original purpose of trying to control the situation created by the immigration of analysts, while at the same time it had become urgently necessary for it to function as a philanthropic agency to assist our colleagues in Europe to migrate to various countries and various parts of this country,— to advise them, to find funds for them, to give them necessary information, to help them to jobs, etc. For everyone this was a period of intense feeling; yet if we face the situation honestly it must be acknowledged that these feelings were not without their elements of conflict and confusion. On the one hand it was recognized that part of the Viennese community of analysts might be seriously hampered in their efforts to adapt to the American scene by the traditional isolationist policy of that group, by its old antipathy to the medical world, and by the hostility to America which had long been inculcated from many sources, some old and historical, some more recent. These considerations gave rise to certain misgivings (mounting in some instances to actual panic), as to the potential influence on psychoanalysis in this country of a large influx of European analysts en masse. We cannot pretend that the activities of this Committee have been wholly free from the confusion to which all of us have been subject. Nevertheless from the statistics presented below it will be seen that the more panicky attitude towards the problem has been grossly unnecessary. This background of confusion however, makes it all the more necessary that our policy should be clearly formulated for the future. Before turning to the problem of future policy, however, let us face the problem itself in concrete terms: When the Committee took hold of the situation it could gather together the names of about seventy -five psychoanalysts who might conceivably seek refuge in this country. It was quickly found, however, that at least twenty of these would under no circumstances come to this country, either because they did not have to migrate or because they had found refuge elsewhere. Of the remaining fifty-five, there are about fifteen who cannot under any circumstances move at present because they come from countries other than Austria in which the quotas have already been applied for in advance, in certain instances for years. Such individuals, once they have applied for admission on a quota visa, cannot receive visitor's visas. This leaves a total group of about forty potential immigrants in our own field for whom this Committee is primarily interested. Among some of our colleagues there has been a great deal of talk about the dangers from a large influx of lay analysts. To these it will be reassuring to learn therefore that in this group of forty there are only five or six laymen who are likely or imminent visitors,—most of whom are trained and experienced in collateral fields, such as education and the like, in which their analytic background cannot fail to be of utmost value. If, therefore, this incoming group is handled tactfully and generously, and if they can be convinced of the necessity of not continuing to train other laymen, it is obvious that American psychoanalysis has nothing to fear in this direction” (Bulletin of the American Psychoanalytic Association 1938, 1(1), S. 65f).
Ab dem Juli 1938 war Bettina Warburg[2] Vizevorsitzende des „Emergency Committee on Relief and Immigration“, im Mai 1939 übernahm sie von Kubie den Vorsitz des Komitees. Kubie war von 1940/41 Vizevorsitzender, verantwortlich für Fragen der Immigration. Bertram Lewin[3] hatte die Verteilung der Finanzen übernommen: „Der Vorstand, Lawrence Kubie, beschäftigte sich mit internationalen Angelegenheiten. Er pflegte persönliche Kontakte zum Außenministerium, um aktuelle Informationen über die Arbeit der europäischen Botschaften und über die Emigrationspolitik der amerikanischen Regierung zu haben. Die Sekretärin Bettina Warburg half den Angekommenen – eigentlich in allem. Sie machte Interviews und versuchte mit Hilfe der ihr zur Verfügung stehenden Stellenangebote den Einwanderern Unterhalt zu sichern. […] Das Emergency Committee spielte eine bedeutende Rolle in der Rettung der europäischen Analytiker. Man kann ohne Übertreibung sagen, daß seine Tätigkeit von großer Bedeutung war, denn es mußte gegen schwierige innen- und außenpolitische Verhältnisse arbeiten; darunter war auch die Politik der Regierung der Vereinigten Staaten, die auf Verlangsamung der Einwanderung zielte. Sie hoben z. B. das seit den zwanziger Jahren gültige Quotensystem, das die Anzahl der Einwanderer nach Ländern regelte, auch zur Zeit der kritischen europäischen Situation nicht auf. […] Die Juden mußten ihr Zuhause innerhalb kürzester Zeit verlassen. Wenn sie es nicht getan hatten, warteten Gefängnis und Konzentrationslager auf sie. In den Wochen nach dem Anschluß herrschte völliges Chaos in den Straßen um die Wiener US-Botschaft. Täglich reichten etwa 6000 Leute ihre Auswanderungsdokumente ein, und die Angestellten der Botschaft machten mit etwa 500 Menschen Interviews […] Zur Veränderung des Quotenverhältnisses war theoretisch die Bewilligung des Parlamentes nötig. Die Chancen dazu waren aus vielen Ursachen gering. Es blieben also die rechtlichen Einlaßpforten für die, die etwas für die Einwanderung tun wollten. Eine dieser Einlaßpforten war mit Hinblick auf die verhältnismäßig hohe Anzahl der deutschen Quote, daß man auch Österreich dem deutschen Abrechnungssystem hinzufügte. So konnte es z. B. geschehen, daß bis Ende Juni 1939 fast 310 000 Einwanderungsanträge innerhalb der Quote eingingen. Ein Teil der Tätigkeit des Emergency Committee hing also mit der Beschaffung der Visa über der Quote und mit der Beschaffung von Anstellungsmöglichkeiten zusammen, was eine unerläßliche Bedingung zur Erfüllung der strengen Einwanderungskriterien war. Geld, ungeheuer viel Geld und unterstützende Beziehungen waren nötig. Deswegen errichtete das Emergency Committee eine Stiftung und erließ einen Aufruf an alle nationalen Vereinigungen, daß sie durch das Komitee auf jede mögliche Weise die Hilfe der europäischen Kollegen unterstützen sollten. Es entstand eine einzigartige berufliche Solidarität“ (Mészáros 1999, S. 60f).
Dem Bericht des „Emergency Committee on Relief and Immigration of the American Psychoanalytic Association” vom Mai 1939 bis zum Mai 1940, der 1940 im „Bulletin of the American Psychoanalytic Association” veröffentlicht wurde, kann man über die Tätigkeit des Committees folgendes entnehmen: „During the current year the Emergency Committee on Relief and Immigration has been in direct and active contact with 13 psychoanalysts, 2 lay analysts, 5 psychoanalysts in training, 15 psychiatrists, and 10 analyzed pedagogues, psychologists and social workers in this country.
Since May 1939 the following persons have reached the United States:
Medical Analysts
Dr. Margit Hohenberg
Dr. Otto Isakower
Dr. I. Silbermann
Dr. Gerhard Witt
Lay Analysts
Dr. Paul Bergmann
Mrs. Basya Tumarin
Physicians in training for Psychoanalysis
Dr. Leo Deutsch
Dr. Fritz Hacker
Efforts are being made to find medical internships for both Dr. Deutsch and Dr. Hacker.
Dr. Gerhard Pisk
Physicians in training for Psychoanalysis who had arrived prior to May, 1939:
Dr. Helmut Baum
Dr. Margaret Hitschmann
Dr. Martin Wang
Your Committee has endeavored to obtain hospital appointments for those psychoanalysts who wanted such appointments, as well as for psychiatrists who ultimately wish to complete their psychoanalytic training. Toward this end it has worked in close cooperation with the Committee of the National Refugee Service, Inc. for the Resettlement of Foreign Physicians. The chairman has collaborated with the Psychiatry Advisory Board, concerning herself chiefly with the interviewing and evaluating of psychoanalysts, and of psychiatrists with psychoanalytic experience.
Many colleagues have appealed to us to intercede for them with various American Consulates abroad, in order to expedite either their own immigration or that of their relatives. Among those whom it has been possible to assist were Mrs. Hilda Kahan-Jordan and Mrs. Anna Zarubova, who have just arrived in Ciudad Trujillo, in the Dominican Republic; Dr. Hans Herma, now in transit to the United States from Switzerland;* and Dr. Clara Lazár-Gero, who with her family is now resettled in Australia. Drs. Andrea and Vera Balkanyi and their family were also assisted in reaching Australia.
Unfortunately your Committee was unable to be of any real assistance to Dr. and Mrs. Otto Brief, since the German government retracted its initial promise to release Dr. Brief from prison upon the completion of emigration arrangements, and instead transferred him to Oranienburg. Mrs. Brief appealed for help so that she and her children might go to Norway. Dr. Hanns Sachs and Dr. Max Eitingon generously supplied the necessary funds; but these arrangements could not be completed because hostilities broke out in Norway” (1940, Bulletin of the American Psychoanalytic Association, 3(1), S. 16-65, S. 55f).
In der Psychoanalytic Review aus 1941 veröffentlichen Bettina Warburg, Bertram D. Lewin und Lawrence S. Kubie folgenden Bericht: „In recent months the Emergency Committee on Relief and Immigration of the American Psychoanalytic Association has kept in close contact with our colleagues in England, primarily through Drs. Jones and Glover of the British Institute of Psycho-Analysis. Through them we have watched the development of a critical situation in the lives of many of our colleagues in England—both European and British. The acute situation which has arisen in London since the beginning of the intensified air attacks has disrupted and endangered the lives of everyone. Some are unable to leave London because of legal restrictions, and at the same time are unable to practice in London because of the conditions which exist there. Others are scattered throughout the country where they are working in improvised hospitals, nurseries and the like. Within London itself an acute need has arisen for special bomb-proof shelters, equipped adequately as nurseries for the care of infants and very young children. Along with others, Miss Anna Freud has been particularly active in this work. For all of these purposes, funds are urgently needed; and for those funds we are turning to the psychiatrists of this country. In spite of all that you may have given already, we would beg you to contribute again and at once. Funds will be sent directly to Dr. Glover for distribution as needed, both for personal relief and to assist in carrying on the various enterprises in which our colleagues in England are engaged in their efforts to help the country withstand the destructive forces to which it is being subjected. We beg you to respond to this appeal without delay, and as generously as you possibly can. In many ways it is the most urgent that we have had occasion to send out” (1941; Psychoanalytic Review, 28 (3), S. 443-444).
Dem von Bettina Warburg unterzeichneten Endbericht vom 17. März 1948 ist zu entnehmen: Da nun keine Immigration aus Europa mehr möglich gewesen sei und alle, die gekommen waren, untergebracht worden seien, hatte das „Emergency Committee“ anlässlich des Treffens der „American Psychoanalytic Association“ im Mai 1943 mitgeteilt, dass es seine Arbeit beendet. Die Bücher seien aber erst im März 1948 geschlossen worden, da bis dahin noch Rückzahlungen von denjenigen eintrafen, denen Geld geborgt worden war.
Literatur:
Mészáros, J. (1999). Budapester Schicksalswendungen … Die ungarische Psychoanalyse und die Emigration. Luzifer-Amor, 12(23), S. 53-68.
Steiner, R. (2011). In All Questions, My Interest is Not in the Individual People but in the Analytic Movement as a Whole. It Will Be Hard Enough Here in Europe in the Times to Come to Keep it Going. After All, We are Just a Handful of People Who Really Have That in Mind. Int. J. Psycho-Anal., 92(3), S. 505-591.
Thompson, N.L. (2008). Karl Abraham in New York: Die Beiträge von Bertram D. Lewin . Jahrb. Psychoanal., 57, S. 79-93.
Thompson, N.L. (2012). The Transformation of Psychoanalysis in America: Emigré Analysts and the New York Psychoanalytic Society and Institute, 1935-1961. J. Amer. Psychoanal. Assn., 60, S. 9-44.
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[1] Lawrence S. Kubie (1896-1973) war ein in New York praktizierender Psychoanalytiker. Unter seinen Patienten waren u. a.:Tennessee Williams, Leonard Bernstein und Kurt Weill.
[2] Bettina Warburg (geb. 1900 in Hamburg, gest. 1990 in New York) gehörte der ursprünglich aus Venedig stammenden Warburg Familie an. Sie war mit ihren Eltern 1902 in die USA gekommen. Ab 1932 war sie Mitglied der New Yorker Vereinigung. Von 1938 bis 1948 arbeitete sie mit Kubie als „co-chairman of the Emergency Committee on Relief and Immigration” der American Psychoanalytic Association.
[3] Bertram David Lewin (1896-1971) war ein New Yorker Psychoanalytiker, der seine Ausbildung in Berlin bei Franz Alexander begonnen hatte (Thompson 2008).